Babylonian and Assyrian religion

Overview

Babylonian and Assyrian religion carried on the religious tradition of Sumer among Mesopotamia's later Semitic-speaking populations, as Marduk of Babylon and Ashur of Assyria each rose to head their own state's pantheon. Marduk's rise is told in the Enuma Elish, recited yearly at Babylon's Akitu festival, while much of what survives of this tradition comes down through the library the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal assembled at Nineveh.^[2–7]

History

From Sumer to Babylon and Assyria c. 2000–1750 BCE

After Sumerian political unity ended around 2000 BCE, Babylon in the south and Ashur in the north emerged as successor states inheriting Sumerian religion largely intact, and Babylon's king Hammurabi built the city into a lasting power, his law code showing him before the sun god Shamash.^{[6, 8]}

Neo-Babylonian height and the end of native rule 626 BCE – 1st century CE

Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon and its temples at the height of Neo-Babylonian power before Persia's Cyrus took the city in 539 BCE, after which Mesopotamia passed through Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian rule into the early centuries CE.^{[1, 9]}

Key moments

1. c. 2300 BCEEnheduanna, the first named author · Ur, southern Iraq
2. c. 2100 BCEThe Ziggurat of Ur · Ur, southern Iraq
3. c. 1800 BCEThe Epic of Gilgamesh · Babylonia
4. c. 575 BCEBabylon's New Year festival · Babylon, Iraq
5. 539 BCEThe Cyrus Cylinder · Babylon, Iraq
6. c. 79 CEThe last cuneiform tablet · Uruk, Iraq

Practice

Omens and scholarship

Priests and scribes compiled large collections of omen texts, treating unusual events as divine messages; this scholarly activity is attested in the cuneiform archives of cities such as Ashur and Nineveh.^[10]

Scripture

Enuma Elish · Enūma Eliš

attested by the 12th century BCE

Babylon's creation epic names Marduk supreme among the gods after his defeat of the chaos-monster Tiamat.^[4]

Places

Babylon (Esagila and Etemenanki)

IRQ · UNESCO World Heritage, 2019

Babylon's temple complex housed the Esagila, Marduk's sanctuary, beside the ziggurat Etemenanki, likely the model behind the Tower of Babel story.^[11]

Art & objects

Public-domain objects from museum collections. Select one to see it at the museum.

Relief Showing the Head of a Winged GeniusNimrud, Neo–Assyrian Period, reign of King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE)Saluting Protective SpiritNeo-Assyrian (911–609 BCE), Iraq, Nimrud, Northwest Palace, reign of Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE), 883–859 BCEAmulet with fighting demons; on reverse: Ishtar enthroned and worshiperAssyrian, Neo-Assyrian, ca. 8th–7th century BCEStamp seal (octagonal pyramid) with cultic sceneAssyro-Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian / Neo-Babylonian, late 8th–7th century BCECuneiform tablet: Old Babylonian balag to the mother goddess AruruBabylonian, Old Babylonian, ca. 19th–16th century BCECuneiform tablet: Gula incantationBabylonian or Achaemenid, Neo-Babylonian or Achaemenid, ca. mid- to late 1st millennium BCECuneiform tablet: a-she-er gi-ta, balag to Innin/IshtarSeleucid or Parthian, Seleucid or Parthian, ca. 2nd–1st century BCECuneiform tablet: hymn to MardukBabylonian (?), Neo-Babylonian (?), 1st millennium BCECuneiform tablet: Atra-hasis, Babylonian flood mythBabylonian or Achaemenid, Neo-Babylonian or Achaemenid, ca. 7th–6th century BCECast reconstruction of Babylonian Flood Tablet19th century, after 7th century BCE originalPanel with striding lionBabylonian, Neo-Babylonian, ca. 604–562 BCEApkallu figure: bird-headed, winged figure carrying a bucketAssyrian, Neo-Assyrian, ca. 9th–8th century BCECylinder seal and modern impression: goddess leading a worshiper to a seated deity; bull godOld Assyrian Trading Colony, Middle Bronze Age–Old Assyrian Trading Colony, ca. 20th–19th century BCECylinder seal and modern impression: suppliant goddess and offering bearer approaching Ishtar, three columns of inscriptionBabylonian, Old Babylonian, ca. early 2nd millennium BCE

Common misconceptions

Glossary

Akitu · akitu

Babylon's eleven-day New Year festival in spring, centered on Marduk and Nabu.^[5]

Enuma Elish · Enūma Eliš

"When on high," the Babylonian creation epic recounting Marduk's defeat of Tiamat and rise to supreme kingship among the gods.^[4]

Esagila

Marduk's main temple at Babylon, beside the ziggurat Etemenanki.^[11]

Bel

"Lord," a later title for Marduk.^[2]